Crucially, number writing performance was of comparable importance for arithmetic development in German- and English-speaking children. Number writing in Grade 1 predicted arithmetic in Grades 1, 2, and 3 over and above the other predictors. In a series of multiple linear regressions, we tested whether number writing of multi-digit numbers was a significant unique predictor of arithmetic after controlling for well-known non-numerical predictors (nonverbal reasoning and working memory) and numerical predictors (symbolic and nonsymbolic magnitude comparison). German-speaking children ( n = 166) and English-speaking children ( n = 201) were followed over the first 3 years of primary school. In the current study, we aimed to understand whether the contribution of number writing to the development of arithmetic is similar in languages with and without number word inversion. This makes transcoding more challenging than in languages without number word inversion (e.g., English). In languages with number word inversion (e.g., German), the order of tens and units is transposed in spoken number words compared with Arabic numbers. The existing longitudinal evidence about the relation between transcoding and arithmetic is mostly language specific. Number writing involves transcoding from number words (e.g., “thirty-two”) to written digit strings (32) and is an important unique predictor of arithmetic.
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